Radhe Krishna 24-04-2012

Chapter 4

Jnana Yoga in Bhagavadh Gita

YOGA The Sanskrit term jnana derives from the verb root jna, which means 'to know', and is commonly translated as knowledge, comprehension or wisdom. Jnana can refer to the kind of knowledge we have of the temporal world (vttti-jnana), or to the intuitive insight into the Ultimately Real that accompanies moksa or liberation (svarupa-jnana or aparoksa-jnana). The path of jnana-yoga, which is the yoga of knowledge, incorporates both these senses of jnana. The refinement of vrtti-jnana cultivates viveka (discrimination) which is the capacity to distinguish the eternal from the transient, the true from the false, as a means of dispelling the ignorance (avidya) that binds us to the phenomenal world. Moksa occurs when this refinement reaches its culmination in the realisation of svarupa-jnana, which is an unmediated identification with Brahman or the Absolute. Like the term yoga, then, jnana can be understood as both the goal and the means of attaining it. Even though jnana is used in both senses, as the following verses from the Kena Upanisad illustrate, the jnana that arises with the identification of the Self with Brahman is qualitatively different from the kind of knowledge that is cultivated as a spiritual discipline in the path of jnana-yoga. It is other than the known; it is also above the unknown. Thus we have heard from those of old who taught us this. (I. 4) That which is not expressed by speech, but that by which speech is expressed, that alone know as Brahman, not that which people here adore. (I. 5) That which does not think by mind, but that by which, they say, the mind thinks, that alone know as Brahman, not that which people here adore. (I. 6) That which does not see by the eye, but that by which the eyes see, that alone know as Brahman, not that which people here adore. (I. 7) That which does not hear by the ear, but that which the ear hears, that alone know as Brahman, not that which people here adore. (I. 8)  Jnana in the Bhagavad-Gita The compound jnana-yoga first appears in the Bhagavad-Gita, where along with bhakti- and karma-yoga, it forms part of a comprehensive threefold spiritual discipline. The Gita praises jnana or wisdom for being the great purifier which helps us to cross the sea of ignorance that keeps us in bondage (see verses IV. 35-38). This purification takes the form of an evolution of the understanding or intelligence which is variously influenced by the three gunas (the basic qualities or constituents of prakrti or nature). In tamasa-jnana the understanding is of the nature of dullness and indifference and clings to a single aspect of the phenomenal world as if it were the whole of reality. In rajasa-jnana the understanding is moved by passion and activity in perceiving a world of multiplicity without a sense of an underlying unity. Finally in sattvik-jnana the understanding is illumined by the knowledge that there is but one immutable Reality. When the understanding or intelligence (buddhi) remains stable in sattvik-jnana, yoga is attained. When your intelligence … stands unshaken and stable in spirit [samadhi], then will you attain insight [yoga]. (II. 53) When a man puts away all the desires of his mind, O Partha [Arjuna], and when his spirit is content in itself, then is he called stable in intelligence. (II. 55) He whose mind is untroubled in the midst of sorrows and is free from eager desire amid pleasures, he from whom passion, fear, and rage have passed away, he is called a sage of settled intelligence. (II. 56) He who is without affection on any side, who does not rejoice or loathe as he obtains good or evil, his intelligence is firmly set [in wisdom]. (II. 57) He who draws away the senses from the objects of sense on every side as a tortoise draws in his limbs [into the shell], his intelligence is firmly set [in wisdom]. (II. 58)  Jnana in Samkhya and Vedanta As a spiritual discipline, jnana is also central to the philosophical traditions of Samkhya and Vedanta. Samkhya doctrines can be found in the Bhagavad-Gita, and form the basis of the metaphysics of Patanjali’s Yoga-sutras. In both the Samkhya and Yoga darsanas, discrimination between the products of prakrti (nature) and purusa (pure consciousness) leads to liberation (kaivalya). However where Patanjali recommends practices that advance from dharana (concentration) though dhyana (meditation) to samadhi in order to aid the development of this discrimination, Samkhya relies on the refinement of jnana alone. Both Sankya and Vedanta argue that what binds us to the cycle of birth, death and rebirth is avidya (ignorance), and they look to knowledge to dispel it. In the Samkhya tradition this is sought through reason because the discriminative intellect (buddhi) is taken to be the first evolute of prakrti, and so it has precedence over all the other elements of nature. In Vedanta the situation is not so straightforward. Even though jnana-yoga is generally held to be an important aid to liberation, theistic developments in some schools of Vedanta regard bhakti or devotion to the Lord as the most effective means. However in Advaita Vedanta, which became the dominant philosophical position with the decline of Buddhism in India towards the end of the first millennium CE, jnana-yoga is considered to be sole means to moksa. Advaita Vedanta Advaita Vedanta was established as a mature philosophical system by Samkaracarya (c. 788-820 CE), the great Indian philosopher-saint who tradition accepts as an incarnation of the Hindu god Siva. Advaita means non-dual (a = 'not' + dvaita = 'dual, two'), and Samkara famously argued that the doctrine of absolute nondualism contained the essence of the Upanisads in positing Brahman as the Absolute that is beyond both the unity and the diversity of the phenomenal world. In the Introduction to his commentary on the Brahma-sutra, Samkara argues that there is a fundamental incompatibility between the two elements that support phenomenal existence: the subjective and the objective. For Samkara the subjective element is related to pure consciousness, the transcendental 'I', while the objective refers to the 'thisness' of experience, the 'non-I' or entirely 'other' that is given as an object to the subject in perception. The problem is how these two elements, which are logically incompatible with one another in the manner of 'A' and 'not-A', can be related in such a way as to produce this apparently seamless phenomenal reality. Samkara’s response is that given that there can be no real relation between the subject and the object, the relation we experience must be merely apparent and so ultimately illusory. The essence of this illusion is an error based on the superimposition (adhyasa) of the unreal on the real between which there can be no real relation. The classic example is the mistaking of a piece of rope for a snake. As long as the misapprehension lasts the snake appears to us as real and we respond in kind. However on closer inspection we realise that what we believed was a snake is in fact a piece of rope, and the error along with the illusion of the snake simply dissolves. There is no real relation between the snake and the rope as the former was only superimposed on the latter. In much the same way, the seeming relation between the subjective and objective in empirical reality is sustained by the false identification of the 'I' with the objects it perceives: what we believe to be our body, senses, thoughts and feelings that by extension give reality to all external objects. And just as the snake was shown not to be real by being contradicted and therefore annulled by the recognition of the rope, so is all we take to be objective in the empirical world shown not to be ultimately real when the true nature of the transcendental 'I' is realised. Brahman According to Samkara, then, what sustains this phenomenal existence is our ignorance of the true nature of the Self or atman which is identical with Brahman. Brahman derives from the root brh, which means 'to expand' and 'greater than the greatest', and might therefore be interpreted as that beyond which we cannot go; the ground of all that manifests.  It is neither born nor dies, It neither grows nor decays, nor does It undergo any change, being eternal. It does not cease to exist even when the body is destroyed, like the sky in a jar (after it is broken), for It is independent. (Viveka-cudamani, 134) The nature of Brahman is described in the Upanisads as sat-cit-ananda: pure Being (sat), pure consciousness (cit, from verb root cit = ‘to perceive, observe, think, be aware, know’), and pure bliss (ananda, from the verb root nand = ‘to rejoice). These three aspects are not qualities or attributes of Brahman but the very nature of Brahman Itself. However from an empirical standpoint, a distinction can be made between nirguna- Brahman, which is said to be indeterminate, unqualified, and transcendent, and the conditioned and determinate saguna-Brahman who is also known as Isvara or the Lord of the universe. The basis of this and all possible distinctions is maya (from the verb root ma = ‘to measure, to limit, give form’) which is the veiling and projective power of Brahman that gives rise to the grand illusion we know as phenomenal existence, including Isvara. Avidya As the principle behind all appearances maya is avidya, and just as there is no real relation between a piece of rope and the apparent snake that it is mistaken for, there is no real relation between Brahman and the phenomenal world. Nevertheless, just as we respond as if the apparent snake is real, so for all practical purposes is this phenomenal world real for us, and as long as it is we mistakenly regard ourselves as empirical individuals. It is the individual self or jiva that knows, wills, feels and is an object of self-consciousness. As such, the jiva is a subject-object complex that is individualised by the determinations of an inner sense or antahkarana which is comprised of the buddhi (intellect), the manas (mind), the ego (ahankara) and consciousness (cit). The subjective element of this complex is known as the saksin, the pure, disinterested witness that illuminates the modifications of the antahkarana in waking and other states and continues to shine even in deep sleep when there are no objects of any description to shape an experience. The saksin is of the nature of atman, and so is self-luminous though limited by its association with the antahkarana which is a product of avidya. When the snake is superimposed on the rope there is no sense in which the rope ever becomes a snake. When the knowledge of the rope cancels the illusion of the snake, we are left with the rope which in reality was all there ever was. Similarly, when the jiva realises its true nature (svarupa-jnana) it does not become Brahman, as Brahman is all there ever really was. As, when a jar is broken, the space enclosed by it becomes palpably the limitless space, so when the apparent limitations are destroyed, the knower of Brahman verily becomes Brahman itself. (Viveka-cudamani, 565) Next... Archive

Mahavakyas The knowledge that liberates (svarupa-jnana) does not produce moksa, it simply removes the ignorance that was responsible for the illusion of bondage just as the knowledge of the rope dissolves the snake-illusion. To know Brahman is to be Brahman. It is through this identity of the Self (atman) and the Absolute (Brahman) that Samkara interprets what tradition refers to as the mahavakyas (great sayings) of the Upanisads. Prajnanam-brahma – 'Consciousness is the Absolute [Brahman]' (Aitareya Upanisad) Tat-tvam-asi – 'That thou art' (Chandogya Upanisad) Ayam-atma brahma – 'This Self is the Absolute [Brahman]' (Mandukya Upanisad) Aham-brahmasmi – 'I am the Absolute [Brahman]’ (Brhadaranyaka Upanisad) The practice of jnana-yoga can be understood as a movement through these four statements. As will be discussed below, elaborations on the first three of the mahavakyas form the core of the study, reflection and contemplation of the truths revealed in the Upanisads. From an acceptance of the premise that consciousness is of the nature of Brahman (prajnanam-brahma), we can infer that even though we live our lives as separate individuals the fact that we are conscious implies that we are not different from the indescribable Absolute (tat-tvam-asi). Then, if we are convinced by the reasoning of Samkara as outlined above, we come to the conclusion of Advaita which is that our true nature is identical with that which is consciousness itself (ayam-atma brahma). However moksa occurs only when this intellectual conviction ripens into the full and direct realisation of the fourth mahavakya: I am the Absolute (Brahman). Viveka-Cudamani Samkara established the validity of Advaita Vedanta in his commentaries on what is known as the prasthana- traya or the ‘triple canon’ of Vedanta which consists of the Upanisads, the Bhagavad-Gita, and the Brahma- sutra, the three texts that form the doctrinal core of the Vedanta tradition. However he also wrote more accessible works, one of the most popular being the Viveka-cudamani ('Crest-Jewel of Discrimination') which is basically a jnana-yoga manual. Keeping in mind that moksa is not attained but is the very nature of the Self, jnana-yoga does not recommend a regime of practices for achieving liberation. Rather the intention is to remove the obstacle that veils the truth. The aim of any prescribed practice is therefore to counter avidya with its opposite: jnana. According to the Viveka-cudamani, the discipline of jnana-yoga has two stages. The first is preliminary and has much in common with the karma-yoga of the Bhagavad-gita. The aim in this stage is to purify the jiva through the development of what is referred to as the four qualifications, aids or means (sadhana-catustaya) to the study of Vedanta: Viveka is discrimination or discernment between the permanent and the transient, the true and the false, the Real and the merely apparent. It leads to an understanding that our entanglement in this phenomenal world is not definitive, and so provides an incitement to liberation. Vairagya is dispassion or non-attachment to the pleasures of this phenomenal existence. It involves an inner renunciation of the fruit of our actions which enables us to turn our attention to the Absolute. Possession of the six treasures or virtues (sat-sampati): Sama (from sam = 'to be quiet') - calmness or tranquillity acquired by directing out attention away from the phenomenal world and towards the Absolute. Dama (from the verb root dam = 'to control') – temperance or self-restraint through the control of the senses which habitually seek stimulation. Uparati – capacity to maintain the regulation of the mind and the senses developed through sama and dama by abstaining from actions not relevant either to the maintenance of the body or the pursuit of liberation. Titiksa – forbearance or tolerance in the sense of enduring contrary experiences such as pleasure and pain, heat and cold, praise and censure, with equanimity. Samadhana – discipline of single-mindedness in all situations but especially in the study of Vedanta. It is a self-settledness that facilitates concentration on the truth. Sraddha (from the verb root dha = 'to place' + srad = 'faith') – placing one’s faith in the teachings of Vedanta and the words of a realised guru. Mumuksutva – intense yearning for moksa without which all study of the Vedanta remains an intellectual exercise rather than a means to liberation.

The second stage of the discipline of jnana-yoga involves the serious study of Advaita Vedanta. It is directed explicitly towards self-realisation and includes three phases:

Sravana (hearing) involves the formal study of the Upanisads and other significant Vedanta texts under the guidance of a qualified teacher. The aim is to become well acquainted with the philosophical truths revealed in the sruti (revealed scriptures). Manana (reflection, consideration) follows the reception of the sruti in order to remove any doubts as to the veracity of the Upanisadic truths. Continued reflection transforms what has been received on trust into a firm intellectual conviction. This phase is the most emblematic of the disciplines of jnana-yoga as it involves the cultivation of jnana through the refinement of reason. Nididhyasana (meditation, contemplation) matures the intellectual conviction gained through manana into a continuous and profound meditation on the nature of the Self and its identity with Brahman. Continued contemplation eliminates any tendencies in thought that are incompatible with the Upanisadic truths until they ripen into the full immediacy of the ultimate realisation: Aham brahmasmi – 'I am the Absolute [Brahman]'.

Jnana and Liberation

The first stage of the discipline of jnana-yoga has much in common with other paths of yoga, however Samkara insists that even though the cultivation of these qualities is indispensable, it is jnana alone that dissolves avidya. This means that spiritual disciplines such as remaining unattached to the fruit of one's actions (karma-yoga) or devotional and meditation practices (bhakti- and raja-yoga), although useful preliminaries, will not remove the ignorance that keeps us bound to the phenomenal world. The reason for this is twofold: firstly, anything that is produced, modified or acquired must eventually pass away and so cannot yield the Ultimate which is eternal and immutable; and secondly, the very notion that there is something to be produced, modified or acquired reinforces the distinction between the gainer and the gained, the self and the not-self, which lies at the heart of the ignorance that binds us. As long as there is something to be gained there is someone who stands to gain, and it is the identification of consciousness with this someone that is the origin of the ignorance that is the fundamental obstacle to liberation.

It might be argued that knowledge implies a distinction between the knower and the known and so is prone to the same criticism. However the kind of knowledge intended by Samkara in the second stage of his codification of jnana-yoga is concerned with the nature of the Self, and as such is designed to remind us that the Absolute is beyond all distinctions. Mere intellectual speculation is inadequate for this task as the gap between the thinker and the thought cannot be bridged as long as we rely on reason alone. However just as continued enquiry into the nature of the snake illusion leads us to the knowledge of the rope that dispels the illusion, so the knowledge generated by the study of Vedanta culminates in the immediate insight into nature of the Self which is beyond all determinations.

If the Absolute is conceived in any way as different from the Self, if Brahman is worshipped as something other than the Self, if the Self is taken to be of the same nature as Brahman though of a lesser degree, then a process of some description is required to bridge the gap between the Self and the Absolute, and as was stated above, anything that is the result of a process cannot be permanent. According to Samkara, the Absolute is always already directly known because the Self is not different from Brahman. The only way to know Brahman is to be Brahman, and in this immediate apprehension of the Absolute the ignorance that binds us is dissolved. So even though this ultimate realisation or svarupa-jnana is said to be revealed in the mahavakya, aham brahmasmi, the reality of moksa is beyond any possible expression.

The jnanin is one who has realised this truth and is therefore liberated while still living (jivanmukta). For the jnanin the body is only apparent, and so its continued appearance is of no significance. If it was otherwise liberation would depend upon the dissolution of the body. However the whole point of jnana-yoga is to realise that we are never other than Brahman, and that all manifestation is maya. Unlike the yogin who experiences samadhi as separate from the waking and dream states and remains in the thrall of maya as long as their body lives, the jnanin is in samadhi at all times. The samadhi of the jnanin is sometimes described by the qualification sahaja, which means natural, innate or spontaneous. In sahaja-samadhi one continues to act in the world though with complete spontaneity, and experiences pleasure and pain with no concern for either.

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